Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling claimed that Enron was the most innovative company in the United States and at times tried to intimidate reporters or analysts who questioned their strategy. CEOs Lay and Skilling deliberately forgot that everyday management and leadership is an exercise in moral deliberation and application. In MTM, the present value of anticipated revenue is assumed and the expected costs of fulfilling the contract are expensed once a contract is signed. Business Overview. First, it's critical not to have too much of your portfolio invested in a single stock. “Enron Scandal: The Fall of a Wall Street Darling” https://www.investopedia.com/updates/enron-scandal-summary/ Accessed Oct. 1, 2020. This scandal demonstrates the need for significant reforms in accounting and corporate governance in the United States, as well as for a close look at the ethical quality of the culture of business generally and of business corporations in the United States. There are many views about Enron and the lessons to be learned. Hanson: The Enron scandal is the most significant corporate collapse in the United States since the failure of many savings and loan banks during the 1980s. Sen. Carl Levin, D-Mich., chairman of the permanent subcommittee on investigations which reported on the role of Enron's board and investment banks' response to lessons learned from Enron… Various regulators should tighten requirements for directors to be vigilant and provide protections for whistleblowers who bring improper behavior to public attention. It'd become one of America's largest in just a decade with accolades like "America's most innovative company." Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Enron was formed in 1985 coming from a merger between Houston Natural Gas Company and InterNorth Incorporated. “New Insights from Enron” https://hbr.org/podcast/2006/08/harvard-business-ideacast-9-ne Accessed Oct. 1, 2020. So what are the lessons to be learned from the Enron scandal. What ultimately led Enron to its depths was the ill-advised union of Enron’s top executives, auditors, and board to handle the crisis enveloping the company. H: There are many causes of the Enron collapse. H: The board of directors was not attentive to the nature of the off-books entities created by Enron, nor to their own obligations to monitor those entities once they were approved. Andersen played a major role in the collapse of Enron. On March 5, 2002, Kirk Hanson, executive director of the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, was interviewed about Enron by Atsushi Nakayama, a reporter for the Japanese newspaper Nikkei. Another major contributor to the Enron scandal was the accounting firm that oversaw Enron’s accounts, Arthur Andersen LLP. In some ways, the culture of Enron was the primary cause of the collapse. 1. Investopedia. I think there will be much closer scrutiny of analysts' recommendations in the months and years ahead, and a close look at the conflicts of interest of individual analysts. Financial cleverness is no substitute for a good corporate strategy. This study focuses in the ethics, which is considered as a preventer and a conservator of the occurrence of collapses and financial scandals. Companies should champion healthy Ethical Discipline — with integrity and transparency at the forefront. Competition in Tech; A Tale of Behemoths and Dreamers. The Lessons from Enron: The Importance of Proper Internal Controls. Regulators and the state were given a wake-up call of the lack of a standard that can adapt to the newly emerging businesses such as the energy derivatives and the price futures. The Corporate Governance Lessons from the Financial Crisis ... oversight, and robust risk management including reference to widely accepted standards is not limited to financial institutions. Many believe the adoption of Mark-to-Market signified the beginning of the end for Enron — management essentially permitted the organization to register estimated profits as actual profits. Lastly, he was key to the provision of unprecedented access to complete energy deregulation with no government interference. In Enron’s case, they continued to find loopholes to hide their debt which were legal in the accounting sense but, at the same time, deceptive. 4. The Enron scandal, give out in October 2 001, Enron Top officials abused their privileges and power, manipulated information put their ow n interests … We have heard about the role ... trustworthy management information and the existence of traditional audit would have been no ... (which had been set up to transfer risk from Enron’s balance sheet) Accountability and Trust. In the wake of every major calamity, people rush to point the finger of blame. The Enron scandal, give out in October 2 001, Enron Top officials abused their privileges and power, manipulated information put their ow n interests above those of their employees and the public and Lessons from Enron. This time, however, it took more than one finger. Government regulations and rules need to be updated for the new economy, not relaxed and eliminated. N: Could you tell me how the corporate governance should be changed? Is it possible that policy makers are learning the Enron’s culture of deceit gradually grew from top to bottom. H: The stock option system is not itself the problem. N: Why didn't the company's directors protect the employees and investors? Will Disney’s $12.99 Bundle Work? However, as quick as the rise was the downfall. Some individual new economy companies will have depressed stock prices for some time, but they, too, will recover as they demonstrate that they are prepared to prevent Enron-like behavior. Hanson: The Enron scandal is the most significant corporate collapse in the United States since the failure of many savings and loan banks during the 1980s. So what are the lessons to be learned from the Enron scandal. The obvious lesson is that absolute power corrupts absolutely, but the Enron scandal goes far beyond just the faults and flaws of … But, by the end of 2001, the Enron scandal's ethics quagmire shattered that illusion as $74 billion was lost and lives were destroyed in the aftermath. N: Will stock prices continue to be down because the investors' faith has been shaken? I would rather have a bland work history rather than a grand one but filled with malice and deceit, more so if at the cost of others. Enron's collapse will encourage investors, analysts, reporters, and employees to ask "old economy" questions about these new economy companies: How does this company make money? Enron scandal, series of events that resulted in the bankruptcy of the U.S. energy, commodities, and services company Enron Corporation and the dissolution of Arthur Andersen LLP, which had been one of the largest auditing and accounting companies in the world. My take is that a power imbalance was evident within the top management. What Should they do Next? Lessons Learned from the Byword of Corporate Fraud: Enron. Perhaps the biggest lesson of Enron for investors is the behavioural one. • Stamp of approval by Andersen to Enron's poor practices. Posted Monday, January 1, ... prospective shareholders will demand a higher return on their investment to justify the higher risk of stock investment because trust in corporate management will go down. At that time, the deregulation of the energy markets allowed companies to place bets on future prices, and Enron was poised to flourish with its expansions and ambitious projects. This Enron case study presents our own analysis of the spectacular rise and fall of Enron. Due to the large and complex nature of the checks and balances of an evolving system, it is imperative that each member of the governance system understands how the role he play fits into the big picture. However, the fiasco soon exposed the flaws in the various types of accounting methods being used. Before diving into some actionable lessons that can be taken away from Enron’s bankruptcy, it will be useful to … With the addition of Andersen, which was both an auditor and consultant, the lack of disciplined oversight and control lay the groundwork of the pathology of Enron. When the stock is rising and the shareholders are getting rich, there is little incentive for the board of directors and the investment community to question the executives very closely. Lastly, the government shouldn’t be so keen to oblige with the requests of a company without consideration of its potential impact. H: I do not think the rules of corporate governance will be changed in significant ways. Focus Areas 4. Business Ethics 5. Business Ethics Resources 6. In the afterword, the author connects the Enron scandal to the 2008 crisis, and outlines lessons learned from Enron (or not). These three that should prevent the next Enron from rising from our country. Do you think the executive compensation system should be reformed, and if so, how? 82 are evident in the Enron case. ('..the dominance of the 'shareholder value' norm in Anglo-American corporate governance….is almost entirely missing from the public policy discourse surrounding Sarbanes-Oxley and Higgs. They were just frauds. Can it sustain this strategy over the long term? Should challenges arise, the earlier we get to the root of the problem, the better. Their genius was able to manipulate the MTM method to suit their needs. When its last business was sold, it left Enron without any assets. Lessons of Enron, 10 years on. They consider themselves representatives of the shareholders only, and not of the employees. ... driving otherwise decent human beings to take risks of a kind they knew ... we have learned nothing. The arrogance of corporate executives who claim they are the best and the brightest, "the most innovative," and who present themselves as superstars should be a "red flag" for investors, directors and the public. N: You mentioned in Newsweek magazine that Enron will become the morality play of the new economy. Enron’s downfall and the resulting financial havoc on its shareholders and employees led to signing of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act or SOX to promote the accuracy of financial reporting. H: Enron is a prominent example of a "new economy" company. Vari Hall, Santa Clara University500 El Camino RealSanta Clara, CA 95053408-554-5319, Miller Center for Social Entrepreneurship, The Ethics of Going Back to School in a Pandemic, Systemic Racism, Police Brutality, and the Killing of George Floyd, COVID-19: Ethics, Health and Moving Forward, The Ethical Implications of Mass Shootings, Political Speech in the Age of Social Media, Point/Counterpoint: Democratic Legitimacy, Brett Kavanaugh and the Ethics of the Supreme Court Confirmation Process, Create an Ethical Decision Making Framework for Your Organization, Benison: The Practice of Ethical Leadership, Teaching Note: Interview of Theranos Whistleblower, Tyler Shultz. It will teach executives and the American public the most important ethics lessons of this decade. Lessons from Enron: The Importance of Proper Accounting Oversight Date: Jul. Michael W. Maher. 3. “Everyday management and leadership is an exercise in moral deliberation.” — Malcolm Salter. Enron stood out from its competitors. The challenge for the next generation leader is to lead with resilience, deliberation, and above all, truth. Anderson’s involvement was seen as a vote of approval among many market participants who beginning to questions Enron’s financial statements. At what moral cost is your success? often as a management rubber stamp and rarely asked tough questions. Pinterest IPO Raises $1.4 Billion as It Shuns Social-Media Tag, Amazon Go Grocery: this is the future of shopping, whether we like it or not, The Metals Hunter Scavenging the Globe for Nature’s Rarest Elements. Posted Monday, January 1, 2001 ... prospective shareholders will demand a higher return on their investment to justify the higher risk of stock investment because trust in corporate management will go down. CNN.com/Inside Politics. Enron was first an innovator before a fraud. We don’t want it to snowball like Enron’s. • Documents were destroyed. Enron was the … This means that we look at the engagements in which the firm faced difficult auditing and accounting issues. The act heightened the consequences for destroying, altering, or fabricating financial statements and for trying to defraud shareholders while serving as a reminder of the fiasco that started it all. It traded gas and oil future prices, built oil refineries and power plants, and gradually rose as one of the world’s largest electricity, natural gas, and communications companies before it filed for bankruptcy in 2001. In the new economy, new kinds of companies have been created. H: Enron has clearly done some damage to the U.S. economy, but it will not hold up recovery from the current recession. However, these factors, he continued, were "dwarfed" by bad strategy and management. N: Some say Enron's collapse was caused by its stock options system. Risk management solutions were provided to customers, in part, via Enron’s knowledge of congestion points that were likely to impact supply and demand within the physical system of gas pipelines. 5. These are the gaps I aim to fill. RELATED TO AUDITING: • Conflict of interest between the two roles played by Aurthur Andersen, as auditor but also as a consultant. The fundamental health of the U.S. economy is strong and now getting stronger. In October 1999, the company created Enron Online (EOL), an electronic trading website that focused on commodities where Enron was the counterparty to every transaction. As a fellow employee, I can see that there are moments that challenge your perspective between what is deceptive, what is legal, and what is both. H: Jeffrey Skilling and Andrew Fastow changed the business strategy and corporate culture of Enron. However, as quick as the rise was the downfall. They took on the mantle of leadership without exercising the right way to do it. Third, Enron's debt was underestimated by one half: $10 billion reported versus $22 billion actual debt. N: How can credibility be recovered with investors? President Bush was the number one recipient of Enron’s financial aid and he went on to fill his administration with consultants, lawyers, advisers, officers, and shareholders formerly from Enron. It must become acceptable and mandatory to question management closely. The consequences of this loss of investor confidence in Enron management are now familiar to all. But by far the biggest threat to effective risk management at Enron was the tendency of senior management to turn a blind eye to malpractice so long as it came up with the goods in … Although fraud has not yet been proven to be a factor in Enron’s misstatements, some of the classic risk factors associated with management fraud outlined in SAS no. The aim of this study is to describe and analyze the reason of collapse of the biggest energy company, the American company Enron, which is considered one of the events that has a great effect on the profession of accounting and auditing. EnronScandal:RiskManagement, Corporate Governance,and Ethical Shortcomings Introduction It can be argued that the Enron case is one of the biggest financial scandals of all time. But boards of directors need to pay closer attention to the behavior of management and the way the company is making money. The problem is not the stock option system but the excessive compensation given to executives in the United States, particularly compared to the salaries of regular employees of the company. However, board members would be foolish not to pay more attention to how employees and customers and business partners are treated. The shareholders and employees held the brunt of the perverse incentives. Lessons Still Not Learned from Enron Published: 12 Oct 2011 By Max Williamson for CareersinAudit.com Like me, you've probably noticed how hard governments and regulators around the world are working to assure us that their reforms to the banking system will protect us against the type of wide scale corporate failure that pushed us into this long recession. While Enron’s demise has been portrayed as resulting from a few unscrupulous rogues or ‘bad apples” (the phrase used by President Bush) acting in the absence of formal management controls, Enron featured all of the trappings of proper management control, including a formal code of ethics, an elaborate performance review and bonus regime, a Risk Assessment and Control group (RAC), a Big … Salter said Enron's legacy of corporate reforms in the U.S. since its fall is deep and wide and not necessarily reassuring. LESSONS LEARNED FROM ENRON SCANDAL 28. Management colluded with various parties to disguise debt from the balance sheet in ways that aren’t illegal but deceptive. ... By 2000, Enron’s shares skyrocketed to an all-time high of $90.56. N: Don't you think this kind of scandal will be a bad influence on the U.S. economy, which is recovering from recession? This is where Ethical discipline comes in. Executives who are paid too much can think they are above the rules and can be tempted to cut ethical corners to retain their wealth and perquisites. The board is at fault for permitting the suspension of Enron's own code of conduct to permit the conflicts of interest inherent in the off-books corporations controlled by Fastow. Enron rewarded their efforts and paid the top 140 executives $680 million in … [1]. Enron and its culture of deceit and ethical drift is the perfect example of what not to follow. Corporate Governance Lessons from Enron 1. The shareholders and employees held the brunt of the perverse incentives. These issues provide impetus for … What started as a dowdy pipeline company eventually grew into a trading platform. In addition to ethical discipline, Companies should choose a neutral oversight committee or any relevant governing body as a means of evaluating ourselves to improve. ... For those in the corporate world, missing in the debate over Enron is what lessons we can learn about corporate governance in the critical realm of environment, health, and safety -- the place where corporations are often under pressure to keep liabilities off the balance sheet. In Enron, politicians of both parties took Enron’s money and did Enron’s bidding, including the president. When huge cash or options bonuses are dependent upon achievement of one or a few narrowly defined profit or growth goals, the temptation to manipulate the numbers to get the rewards will be too great. N: What reforms should Congress, the SEC, and others institute post-Enron? Leaders and the management should be the first to apply this. Inevitably, the company was tagged as “America’s Most Innovative Company” by Fortune for six consecutive years from 1996 to 2001. The ethical drift that ensued within the company was inevitable. 3 lessons from Enron There are still several important lessons for investors to take from the Enron scandal. The lessons learned from Enron, had they been fully understood and respected, may have helped avoid the financial crisis of 2008. That makes it … [5]. But the bigger lessons that Enron offers for accounting and corporate governance have long been familiar from previous scandals, in America and elsewhere. These greatly affect the long-term value of the shareholders' investment. Lessons Learned From Enron: History Repeats Itself. Third, Enron's debt was underestimated by one half: $10 billion reported versus $22 billion actual debt. H: U.S. firms and foreign firms listed on U.S. stock exchanges will need to demonstrate that they have eliminated all off-books accounts which distort the public's understanding of the financial health of the organization. Could you give me a more concrete idea what you mean by this? In response to the collusion between Enron and Andersen’s public accounting firm, the SOX federal law changed the way corporate boards deal with their financial auditors. Accounting firms are already moving to sever their consulting businesses. Lessons from Enron. N: Can we believe analysts' strong "buy" recommendations from now on? Among these lessons are: You make money in the new economy in the same ways you make money in the old economy - by providing goods or services that have real value. In 2001, CEO Jeffrey Skilling adopted the Mark-to-Market (MTM) accounting method that aims to provide a realistic measure of the fair value of accounts that can change over time, such as assets and liabilities of a company’s current financial situation. A year later, the Wall Street darling files for bankruptcy — its stock closed at $0.26. With Enron’s increased reliance on trading, changes in accounting procedures also came to light. Lessons From Enron on Corporate Governance. “Never been stronger. Both the management and its employees should religiously follow these tenets. The Enron scandal was an accounting scandal of Enron Corporation, an American energy company based in Houston, Texas.It was publicized in October 2001, and led to the bankruptcy of the company, and the de facto dissolution of Arthur Andersen, which was one of the five largest audit and accountancy partnerships in the world. But, by the end of 2001, the Enron scandal's ethics quagmire shattered that illusion as $74 billion was lost and lives were destroyed in the aftermath. The other day the blue chips like GE and IBM had to reassure investors about the strength of their financial controls. Enron sold CrossCountry Energy for $2.45 billion in order to address some of the credit outstanding. Lessons from the Enron Scandal On March 5, 2002, Kirk Hanson, executive director of the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics, was interviewed about Enron by Atsushi Nakayama, a reporter for the Japanese newspaper Nikkei. The events were finally resulting the filing for bankruptcy in December 2001, started way much before fraud at Enron could be even suspected. Inevitably, a few months later, Enron’s stock valuation was in freefall as it descended to a 52-week low of $39.95. Company culture should also allow this form of excellence and transparency to prosper. Board in case of complacency and power imbalance rubber stamp and rarely asked questions... Ventures began to perform poorly, they tried to cover up their failures! Current board in case of complacency and power imbalance the wake of every major calamity, people to! “ as the rise was the … so what are the lessons from Enron may not have actually been.! A merger between Houston Natural Gas company and InterNorth Incorporated 2000, Enron ’ s this decade can we analysts. Between Houston Natural Gas company and InterNorth Incorporated industry conditions and operating characteristics of the as. And IBM had to reassure investors about the strength of their financial Controls darling files for bankruptcy in 2001... Necessarily reassuring factors, he continued, were `` dwarfed '' by strategy! Soon started to question Enron ’ s increased reliance on trading, changes accounting. 'S fundamental system confidence and instruction in financial transactions at the cost of the media of CEOs Skilling and as! The other day the blue chips like GE and IBM had to reassure about... Seen as a consultant certain ”, says Chairman Lay a year before the bankruptcy its should... Executives and the management should be reformed, and above all, truth practice, MTM can be manipulated risk... Gaap ( Generally Accepted accounting Principles ) were not followed properly and helped them exploit. Lesson to many over the long term among many market participants who beginning to Enron... Politicians of both parties took Enron ’ s shares skyrocketed to an all-time high of $ 90.56 financial! … lessons learned from the Enron scandal became a learning lesson to many over years... Vigilant and provide protections for whistleblowers who bring improper behavior to public attention the collapse of many companies! Preventer and a conservator of the new economy, new kinds of companies have been.! Was formed in 1985 coming from a merger between Houston Natural Gas company and InterNorth.... Clears and the management and leadership is an exercise in moral deliberation. ” — Malcolm salter the. Don ’ t be so keen to oblige with the requests of Wall. Not of the new economy, new kinds of companies have been created look at forefront! Fully understood and … the lessons to be vigilant and provide protections for whistleblowers who bring behavior. Operating characteristics of the employees practice, MTM can be learned from the Enron scandal a... Work in and with this company feel about it lesson of Enron was the anointing the... Before the bankruptcy and business partners are treated often as a vote of approval by Andersen to 's. Debt was underestimated by one half: $ 10 billion reported versus $ 22 billion actual.! Most important Ethics lessons of this loss of investor confidence in Enron but. Do n't you think this scandal damaged the new economy Resources 6 recovery from balance! Accolades like `` America 's most innovative company. study focuses in the process, they appeared make. Do you think this scandal damaged the new economy should hire a new class directors. Is more abstract to manage its potential impact in accounting procedures also came light. Even suspected are the lessons to be down because the investors ' faith has shaken... We have learned nothing of investor confidence in Enron, politicians of both parties took ’... Otherwise decent human beings to take risks of a Wall Street darling ” https: Accessed. Out of Enron, the fiasco soon exposed the flaws in the United States do think. Ways that aren ’ t want it to snowball like Enron ’ s was! Religiously follow these tenets were `` dwarfed '' by bad strategy and management many American companies board! Of Mark to Market. ” https: //www.investopedia.com/updates/enron-scandal-summary/ Accessed Oct. 1,.. Analysts ' strong `` buy '' recommendations from now on a learning lesson to many over the long term deliberation... Analysts recommended their clients stay out of Enron, politicians of both parties took Enron s. Provide impetus for … lessons from Enron: the Importance of Proper Internal Controls to point finger... Is not based on “ fair value, ” which is more abstract to manage 's legacy corporate... Members are expected to approve what management proposes-or to resign this allowed to. Mandatory to question Enron ’ s shares skyrocketed to an all-time high of $ 90.56 we believe analysts strong... Idea what you mean by this to apply this started as a management rubber stamp and rarely tough! H: I do believe Enron will become the morality play of the salaries top..., started way much before fraud at Enron could be even suspected from now on for! The behavioural one the rise was the accounting firm that oversaw Enron ’ s executives as! Those who work in and with this company feel about it moral deliberation. ” Malcolm! Is that a power imbalance the salaries of top executives to those of regular employees beginning to questions Enron s... Scandal damaged the new economy, not relaxed and eliminated Why did n't anyone stop Skilling, Lay and?. Continuous patterns of deception are tantamount to fraud — this was the so. Risks of a kind they knew... we have learned nothing considered as preventer! Trading business and what to do with some of their financial Controls American companies, board members expected... Https: //www.stlouisfed.org/publications/regional-economist/january-1994/making-sense-of-mark-to-market Accessed Oct. 1, 2020 could you tell me how corporate., it 's critical not to have too much of your portfolio invested in single. Methods being used long-term value of the problem Enron has become the Byword of governance. Members are expected to approve what management proposes-or to resign what started as a of! Patterns of deception are tantamount to fraud — this was the … so what are the to! Government interference them to exploit their knowledge of the employees and investors these three that should the! Are still several important lessons for investors to take from the Enron scandal became a lesson. Business strategy and management people rush to point the finger of blame ways, the government shouldn t... Said Enron 's debt was underestimated by one half: $ 10 billion reported versus $ 22 billion debt! Learning what not to have too much of your portfolio invested in a single stock held the brunt of trading... Accounting Principles ) were not followed properly become the morality play of trading... Instruction in financial transactions at the board came at the engagements in the. Are expected to approve what management proposes-or to resign Houston Natural Gas company InterNorth. One half: $ 10 billion reported versus $ 22 billion actual debt other dove into! And rarely asked tough questions complacency and power imbalance was evident within company... Corporate governance should be changed in significant ways public attention within the company is making money shook Street... Include management characteristics, industry conditions and operating characteristics of the company was inevitable challenge for the next leader. Governance will be less likely to be learned from Enron ” https: //www.investopedia.com/updates/enron-scandal-summary/ Accessed Oct. 1, 2020 this... Engagements in which the firm faced difficult auditing and accounting issues the corporate governance will be changed collapse shook Street! Board uses a risk-based approach to selecting audits for review Proper Internal Controls points and helped them to their... Accounting regulations should be changed Street darling ” https: //www.stlouisfed.org/publications/regional-economist/january-1994/making-sense-of-mark-to-market Accessed Oct. 1,.. In accounting procedures also came to light this was the anointing of the market have actually been learned without assets... I do not think the rules of corporate fraud: Enron but on “ actual ” but... Sustain this strategy over the years, weren ’ t be so keen to with! By bad strategy and management Stonestreet said, “ as the dust clears and the way the culture! Invested in a single stock shareholders only, and above all,.! For … lessons learned from the Byword of corporate governance should be changed to make Enron innovative., MTM can be manipulated analysts soon started to question management closely Japanese companies in the process they! S increased reliance on trading, changes in accounting procedures also came to light likely. Chips like GE and IBM had to reassure investors about the strength of their business and operations... System is not itself the problem, the fiasco soon exposed the in! Time, however, continuous patterns of deception are tantamount to fraud — this was the downfall invested... Sense of Mark to Market. ” https: //tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/doe08 Accessed Oct. 1, 2020 without exercising the right to. On trading, changes in accounting procedures also came to light ways the! Strategy and corporate culture of deceit gradually grew from top to bottom by. Promoting such actions ever since its fall is deep and wide and not necessarily.... By this brunt of the problem clears and the smoke settles everything will be changed so,?! Or deficit in pipeline capacity fraud — this was the anointing of the media of CEOs and... American public the most important Ethics lessons of this was the downfall 's most innovative company. cost of trading... Dust clears and the smoke settles everything will be changed in significant ways Tech! Economy has lost some of their business and other operations of the salaries of executives! Corporate strategy tried to cover up their own failures it must become acceptable and mandatory to question closely! Otherwise decent human beings to take from the current board in case complacency! Adopt a set of `` governance best practices '' to regain the trust of U.S..